Fully Digitally Controller for Cantilever-Based Instruments

ABSTRACT

A controller for cantilever-based instruments, including atomic force microscopes, molecular force probe instruments, high-resolution profilometers and chemical or biological sensing probes. The controller samples the output of the photo-detector commonly used to detect cantilever deflection in these instruments with a very fast analog/digital converter (ADC). The resulting digitized representation of the output signal is then processed with field programmable gate arrays and digital signal processors without making use of analog electronics. Analog signal processing is inherently noisy while digital calculations are inherently “perfect” in that they do not add any random noise to the measured signal. Processing by field programmable gate arrays and digital signal processors maximizes the flexibility of the controller because it can be varied through programming means, without modification of the controller hardware.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a divisional application of and claims priority toU.S. application Ser. No. 14/590,150 filed Jan. 6, 2015; which was adivisional application of and claims priority to U.S. application Ser.No. 13/533,078; filed Jun. 26, 2012, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,925,376; whichis a continuation of and claims priority from U.S. application Ser. No.12/826,541 filed Jun. 29, 2010, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,205,488 issued Jun.26, 2012, which is a continuation application of and claims priority toU.S. application Ser. No. 11/768,854 filed Jun. 26, 2007, now U.S. Pat.No. 7,937,911 issued May 10, 2011, which is a continuation applicationof and claims priority to U.S. application Ser. No. 10/740,940, filed onDec. 18, 2003, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,234,243 issued Jun. 26, 2007, whichclaims priority to U.S. Provisional Application 60/434,572, filed Dec.18, 2002. The disclosure of the prior applications are considered partof (and are incorporated by reference in) the disclosure of thisapplication.

BACKGROUND

The present invention is related to an apparatus for controlling theoperation of cantilever-based instruments, and a general method forusing the apparatus, using digital electronics except wherefundamentally not possible.

Cantilever-based instruments include such instruments as atomic forcemicroscopes, molecular force probe instruments, high-resolutionprofilometers and chemical or biological sensing probes. An atomic forcemicroscope (AFM) is a device used to produce images of surfacetopography (and other sample characteristics) based on informationobtained from rastering a sharp probe on the end of a cantilever overthe surface of the sample. Deflections of the cantilever, or changes inits oscillation, which are detected while mastering correspond totopographical (or other) features of the sample. Deflections or changesin oscillation are typically detected by an optical lever arrangement. Anumber of other detection means have also been used, including tunnelingdetection, interferometry, piezo response (strain gauge) andcapacitance. In the case of an optical lever arrangement, a light beamis directed onto a cantilever in the same reference frame as the opticallever. The beam reflected from the cantilever is made to illuminate aposition sensitive detector (PSD). As the deflection or oscillation ofthe cantilever changes, the position of the reflected spot on the PSDchanges, causing a change in the output from the PSD. Changes in thedeflection or oscillation of the cantilever are typically made totrigger a change in the vertical position of the cantilever baserelative to the sample, in order to maintain the deflection oroscillation at a constant pre-set value. It is this feedback thatgenerates an AFM image. AFMs can be operated in a number of differentimaging modes, including contact mode where the tip of the cantilever isin constant contact with the sample surface, and oscillatory modes wherethe tip makes no contact or only intermittent contact with the surface.Other information regarding the cantilever can be collected with anoptical lever arrangement, including the phase or frequency ofoscillation or in-phase and quadrature responses, and this informationused to form images of the sample. These images will have a variety ofinterpretations including sample elasticity, dissipation and adhesiveproperties. In this manner, it is possible to associate varioustopographical features with other mechanical, chemical and electricalproperties.

A typical prior art optical lever system is illustrated in FIG. 1. Inthis system a light beam 2, preferably formed by a light source 1(including a super-luminescent diodes or a laser) with sufficientintensity and lack of pointing or other noise, is directed through acollimation lens or lens assembly 3 and a focusing lens or lens assembly5 and onto a mirror 6 which directs the focused light beam 7 onto aparticular spot on a cantilever 8 in the same reference frame as theoptical lever system. The reflected beam 9 is then collected bydetection optics, which often include an adjustable mirror 13 and atranslation stage for providing an offset to the beam position (notshown), and made to illuminate a position sensitive detector 10 (PSD).

Different AFMs present different schemes for rastering the tip over thesample while detecting cantilever deflection or oscillation andcorrecting the vertical position of the cantilever base. U.S. Pat. No.Re 34,489, Atomic Force Microscope with Optional Replaceable Fluid Cell,describes an AFM in which the sample is mounted on an arrangement ofpiezo tube scanners beneath a stationary cantilever. The piezos positionthe sample in all three dimensions. Another AFM is described in U.S.Pat. No. 5,025,658, Compact Atomic Force Miocroscope. In this AFM, thesample is stationary, lying below an arrangement of piezo tube scannerscarrying the cantilever. The piezos position the cantilever in all threedimensions. A third AFM is described in the inventors' co-pendingapplication Ser. No. 10/016,475, Improved Linear Variable DifferentialTransformers for High Precision Position Measurements. In this AFM, thesample is mounted on a precision stage which employs piezo stacks toposition the sample in the x and y dimensions, while the cantilever ismounted on a third piezo stack above the sample which positions it inthe z dimension. The x-y position is thus decoupled from the z-position.All three dimensions are sensored with linear variable differentialtransformers to provide precise positional information. More detaileddescriptions of these three AFMs is to be found in the referencedpatents and application.

Previously, the electronic circuitry employed to interpret the outputfrom the PSD, calculate the change in the vertical position of thecantilever base relative to the sample required to maintain thedeflection or oscillation of the cantilever (the “error signal”) at aconstant pre-set value and transmit the signals necessary to effectuatethis change, as well as those necessary to form images of the sample,has been analog circuitry or, in relatively recent cases, mixed analogand digital circuitry. Analog and mixed analog/digital circuitry hasalso been used to detect the phase or frequency of oscillation of thecantilever or in-phase and quadrature responses, where those featureshave been made available. The repository for the devices implementingthis circuitry is typically called a controller, although in someinstances, some of the devices have been placed in the computer whichserves as an interface between the user and the controller.

The inventors here have proceeded from the position that analogelectronics in a controller often contribute noise and other problems inthe operation of AFMs and other cantilever-based instruments. Theinvention disclosed herein, therefore, employs digital electronics inkey locations in the controller that lead to improved performance andflexibility. We have also included improved signal routing capabilitiesbased on a mixed analog/digital device that greatly improves theflexibility of the instrument. This new architecture allows all of thefunctionality of past AFM controllers to be duplicated as well asallowing a great deal of new functionality previously impossible toaccomplish with analog circuits.

Analog circuits have used single channel lock-in amplifiers to measure aphase shift between the cantilever and drive signal. FIG. 2 shows atypical such amplifier. Here the AFM is being operated in an oscillatorymode, with the oscillation of the cantilever produced by an oscillator20, the signal from which is also routed through a phase shifter 21. Thephase dependent signal results from a simple analog multiplication ofthe reference signal from the phase shifter 21 and an automatic gaincontrolled 22 version of the signal 23 from the PSD (not shown), and lowpass filtering 25 the output. The multiplication is performed by ananalog mixer or multiplier 24. The output of this type of circuit isdependent on the cantilever phase. To the first order, the measurementis proportional to the cosine of the phase angle. This approach is verysimple to implement, but, because of its nonlinearity and limitationsinherent in automatic gain control circuits, is very inaccurate forlarge phase angles.

FIG. 3 depicts another prior art analog signal processing circuit, a twophase lock-in amplifier. In this prior art, the signal 26 (not automaticgain controlled) from the PSD (not shown), is analog multiplied againstboth a 0 degree reference (the “in phase” component or “I”), and a 90degree reference (the “quadrature” component or “Q”) and low passfiltering 25 the respective outputs. Each multiplication is performed byan analog mixer (or multiplier) 24. This circuit relies upon a digitaldevice, a direct digital synthesizer 27, for a signal to controloscillation of the cantilever (the oscillation is physicallyaccomplished by a piezo, which is not shown) and the quadrature versionof that signal. However, both signals are routed throughdigital-to-analog converters 28 before the analog multiplication.Similarly, the output from the analog multipliers 24 is routed throughanother digital device, a digital signal processor 29 (DSP), where theamplitude and phase are calculated from the in-phase and quadraturesignals. This too requires converters, in this case analog-to-digitalconverters 30. In some cases, this DSP is not physically part of thecontroller, but is instead located on a plug-in card on the computermotherboard. It produces more satisfactory phase results than the singlechannel lock-in amplifier because it is not subject to the limitationsintroduced by automatic gain controlled, and the phase in this case ismathematically correct. Nevertheless, analog electronics continue toexact a high price in terms of noise and nonlinearities. The mainshortcoming of this approach is that it still relies on analogmultipliers. These devices are inherently noisy, nonlinear, subject tofrequency and temperature dependent errors. and bleed-through of themixer references in the output signal.

In addition to the defects and disadvantages already discussed, priorart controllers also have severe upgrade limitations. Typically, theyrequire the purchase of new hardware boxes, cards, modules or some otheradd-on to alter their functionality or add new features. Even worse,they may require the whole controller be sent back to the factory to dosomething as trivial as fix a bug in the hardware.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1: Prior art showing the optical detector for an atomic forcemicroscope with the cantilever positioned in the reference frame of thedetector.

FIG. 2: Block diagram showing a prior art single channel lock-inamplifier for an oscillatory mode in a controller for an atomic forcemicroscope.

FIG. 3: Block diagram showing a prior art two channel lock-in amplifierfor an oscillatory mode in a controller for an atomic force microscope.

FIGS. 4A-4B: Block diagram for the controller disclosed herein.

FIG. 5: Detailed block diagram for the field programmable gate arrayshown in FIGS. 4A-4B.

FIG. 6: Detailed block diagram for the digital signal processor shown inFIGS. 4A-4B.

FIG. 7: Detailed block diagram for the crosspoint switch shown in FIGS.4A-4B.

FIGS. 8A-8B: Nanolithography example.

FIGS. 9A-9B: Nanomanipulation example.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

As noted above, the invention disclosed herein is a controller for AFMsand other cantilever-based instruments which uses digital electronics inkey locations in the controller that lead to improved performance andflexibility. We have also included improved signal routing capabilitiesbased on a mixed analog/digital device that greatly improves theflexibility of the instrument. This new architecture allows all of thefunctionality of past AFM controllers to be duplicated as well asallowing a great deal of new functionality previously impossible toaccomplish with analog circuits.

Without alteration, the disclosed controller may not be used inconnection with AFMs that employ piezo tube scanners for rastering thetip over the sample while detecting cantilever deflection or oscillationand correcting the vertical position of the cantilever base. Thisincludes the AFMs disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. Re 34,489 and U.S. Pat. No.5,025,658, previously discussed. The disclosed controller may be used inconnection with the AFM disclosed in the inventors' co-pendingapplication Ser. No. 10/016,475 and AFMs of similar structure. Thedisclosed controller also facilitates the use of feedback from LVDTs ofthe type disclosed in that application to more precisely control theopation of an AFM.

A basic schematic of the new controller is shown in FIGS. 4A-4B. Threemajor elements of the disclosed controller are of particularsignificance in providing the digital solution which in turn createsenhanced functionality. These are a field programmable gate array 31(FPGA), a digital signal processor 32 (DSP) and a crosspoint switch 33.The circuit may also include a Fast DAC 36 and a LPF 37. Each of theseelements will be discussed separately below.

The remainder of FIGS. 4A-4B includes the connections to the AFM (“Cableto Microscope”), connections to the computer interface (“USB to PC”), avariety of BNCs allowing user input to different controller functionsand three high voltage amplifiers (“HV Amp”) that are used to deliveranalog drive signals to an x-y scanner and to the piezo controlling thez position of the cantilever. As depicted, the disclosed controllerdiagram is shown programmed for imaging in an oscillatory mode. This ismeant as a pedagogical construction, numerous other configurations areeasy to program. In this example, the analog cantilever deflectionsignal (“From Cantilever Deflection” in the upper left corner of FIGS.4A-4B) from the PSD (not shown) is high pass filtered to remove any dcsignal and fed to input 4 on the left side of the crosspoint switch 33(“ACDefl”) from which it is switched to output 2 on the right side ofthe switch (“Infast”) and from there via an analog anti-aliasing filter34 to a high speed (16 bit, 5 MHz) analog-to-digital converter 35. Afterthe ADC conversion, everything in the signal chain is computed purelydigitally, so the signal magnitude and phase quantities are essentiallyperfect. Thus, apart from some filtering to remove parts of the signalwithout value for the digital computation process, the deflection signalis digitized directly after its detection and fed into the FPGA 31 whereit is digitally mixed or multiplied, in a manner analogous to the analogtwo phase lock-in amplifier (FIG. 3). After being mixed the tworesulting digital signals are digitally low pass filtered and sent tothe DSP where the in-phase and quadrature components are transformedinto magnitude and phase. The magnitude is used in a digital feedbackcomputation. The result of that computation is sent to adigital-to-analog converter and, after amplification, the analog signalcauses the piezo controlling the z position of the cantilever to move inthe appropriate direction. In addition to its function in connectionwith the mixing of the digitized deflection signal, equivalent to thatalready described above with the description of the two phase lock-inamplifier, the direct digital synthesizer forming part of the FPGA 31also is used to generate a signal to control oscillation of thecantilever. The signal is sent to a digital-to-analog converter, lowpass filtered and fed to input 15 on the left side of the crosspointswitch 33 (“DDS”) from which it is switched to output 15 on the rightside of the switch (“Shake”). From there it is sent to a “shake” piezo38 which physically accomplishes the oscillation.

Although not shown in FIGS. 4A-4B, the disclosed controller implementsautoconfiguration using a multidrop bus, using technology which is wellknown to those skilled in the art. Multidrop buses allows serialnumbers, device parameters and features of hardware devices to bepermanently recorded. When a device is plugged in or unplugged from theinterconnect boards or controller, the bus allows these devices to beauto detected and the appropriate parameters to be updated in thesoftware. The multidrop bus also supports integrated sensors in thedevices. This allows temperature derating of device parameters to beperformed. The temperature sensors can also be employed for faultdetection.

Field Programmable Gate Array. An FPGA is a piece of programmablehardware consisting of an array of logic blocks and interconnectionsamong the blocks. Both the logic blocks and the interconnections can bedynamically configured and reconfigured to perform a very large numberof low and high level hardware functions. Moreover, it can bedynamically configured and reconfigured to do many tasks all at once (inparallel). Because of this intrinsic parallelism, a FPGA is capable ofdoing calculations hundreds or thousands of times faster than a typicalmicroprocessor or DSP.

It is useful to compare a FPGA with a DSP to capture some idea of thespeed and capacity of a FPGA. One benchmark for how well a DSP performsis the number of multiplies it can perform in one second. Current DSPshave a clock frequency on the order of 100 MHz. If a single calculationis done in a single clock cycle, it means that at best, such DSPs canperform roughly one hundred million calculations every second. Since amultiplication is an easy task for an FPGA to perform, a typical FPGAcould be configured it to do, for example, 100 multiplies during thesame clock cycle. The typical FPGA, therefore, is at least a factor of100 faster than the typical DSP. It can carry out 10,000,000,000multiplies per second, while the typical DSP is carrying out only100,000,000. The FPGA's capacity to do many things at once make it apowerful and unique tool to have in an AFM controller's signalprocessing chain. Implementing a digital dual-phase lock-in, a DDS,several filter chains and everything else needed for an all digital AFMcontroller using just a DSP (or even numerous DSP's, for that matter)would be extremely difficult whereas the controller including an FPGAdescribed here has demonstrated it.

FIG. 5 depicts the functions implemented in FPGA 31 forming part of thedisclosed controller. These include a digital dual--phase lock-in, adirect digital synthesizer 27 (DDS) that generates sine waves of userselectable frequencies and various digital filters 41. Each of thesefunctions may be dynamically reconfigured, when necessary.

As shown in FIG. 5, and as mentioned above, the FPGA implements a fullydigital lock-in. This lock-in is analogous to that described above withthe description of the analog two phase lock-in amplifier (FIG. 3).Here, however, the unreliable analog multipliers 24 of FIG. 3 arereplaced by digital mixers or multipliers 40, which are immune toeffects of temperature, frequency and bleed-through present in analogmultipliers, eliminating these as error sources and providing ahigh-fidelity output signal. Also note that, as mentioned above, becausethe entire lock-in is digital and is described by software, any aspectof it can be upgraded or changed by simply reprogramming the FPGA. Thisincludes changing the detection scheme entirely. For example,experiments which require the amplitude of the cantilever to becalculated on a cycle by cycle basis (such as a fast AC or intermittentcontact mode), the lock-in programmed into the FPGA can be replacedinstead with a peak detector program, all without the need formodifications or additions to the controller hardware.

All aspects of all of the signal chains in the disclosed controllerinvolve the FPGA. Accordingly, any modifications, bug fixes, newfeatures, etc. that might need to be made to any of the signalprocessing hardware during the normal course of the controller's lifecan now be made by a simple program change.

Digital Signal Processor. The DSP 32 forming part of the disclosedcontroller is located inside the controller itself rather than insidethe interface computer, as has been the case with other scanning probemicroscopes. This design simplifies the transfer of data between the DSPand auxiliary devices, such as the FPGA, ADCs, DACs and the cross-pointswitch. Because the DSP is in the controller, it is possible to use astandard interface between the controller and the computer. In thepreferred embodiment, a USB interface was employed. This arrangementalso makes it convenient to trade off tasks between the FPGA and theDSP. In general, the DSP is easier to program than the FPGA whereas theFPGA is significantly faster.

The functions of the DSP 32 are depicted in FIG. 6.

Crosspoint Switch. The crosspoint switch 33 forming part of thedisclosed controller, like the DSP, is located inside the controlleritself rather than inside the interface computer, or another physicallyseparate receptacle, as has been the case with other scanning probemicroscopes. As with the DSP, this design simplifies the transfer ofdata between the cross-point switch and auxiliary devices, such as theFPGA, ADCs, DACs and the DSP.

The functions of the crosspoint switch 33 are depicted in FIG. 7. Thecrosspoint switch 33 acts as a telephone switchboard for most of theinput and output signals within the disclosed controller. Using softwarecommands, the crosspoint switch allows users to route signals toappropriate sections of the hardware. Because of this powerful signalrouting flexibility, virtually limitless controller topologyconfigurations can be defined, without the use of additional physicalwiring. In addition, as previously discussed, all signals are readilyavailable through the BNCs on the front panel for ease-of-use.

In the preferred embodiment, the crosspoint switch includes sixteeninputs and sixteen outputs. The inputs, on the left side of thecrosspoint switch, include several which are dedicated for the purposesof the user (6UserIn0, 7UserIn1 and 8UserIn2) or are not currently usedand available for future needs (11PogoIn1, 12PogoIn1, 13NotUsed1 and14NotUsed2). The same is true of the outputs, on the right side of thecrosspoint switch: (10UserOut0, 11UserOut1 and 12UserOut2, 13PogoOut and14 Chip).

The disclosed controller allows an AFM or other cantilever-basedinstrument to be operated using low-level command developed by theinventors and others linking the controller to a high level softwarecontrol language, including Igor Pro, MATLAB, LabView and Visual Basic.This allows the instrument to leverage a large number of alreadyexisting routines and controls and that in turn allows the rapiddevelopment and prototyping of new routines, such as nanolithography andnanomanipulation of the sample, automatic spring calibration andproduction of images that are limited only by the memory of the computer(4096.times.4096 pixels for example). Moreover, the high level softwarecontrol language facilitates user measurements, analysis of data andcreation of publication quality figures. This is a significant advantageover proprietary AFM software, where the manufacturer is forced toeither duplicate all of these features in the AFM software or the useris forced to run more than one software package to accomplish all of hisor her requirements.

Mouse Driven Nanolithography and Manipulation

The following is a small collection of manipulation and lithographyexperiments made using the MFP-3D. Everything in this collection wasdone using the MicroAngelo™ interface. Most manipulation sequences beginwith an initial reference image. This is followed by the same image witha series of curves drawn onto it. These represent the programmedmovement of the cantilever tip during the lithography/manipulationphase. This is followed by a “response” image, showing the effects ofthe lithography. This process can be repeated, in some cases many times.In addition to simple hand drawn curves and lines, MicroAngelo™ cancreate mathematically defined curves and arrays. Some examples of thisare included at the end. In addition to moving the cantilever tiparound, MicroAngelo can also make measurements during thelithography/manipulation process. Examples include monitoring thecantilever height, amplitude, deflection, phase, current or any otherdata channel including external signals.

A manipulation demonstration is shown in FIGS. 8A and 8B. Both images ofthe carbon nanotube was made in AC/repulsive mode with an amplitude ofroughly 100 nm. An atomic step is visible in both images. The gray scalewas 15 nm and the scan size was 1.45.mu.m. FIG. 8A shows an initialimage along with bright line traces sketched using the MicroAngelo™interface. After the image was completed, the cantilever tip was movedalong the bright traces in FIG. 8A. As the cantilever traced the brightpaths, the normal loading force was set to 90 nN. The nominal velocityof the cantilever tip was 1 mu.m/second. FIG. 8B shows the resultingmotion of the carbon nanotube. The tube section on the lower left sideof the image has been separated from the tube section on the upper rightportion of the image.

FIG. 9A shows an image generated with external software. The MicroAngelointerface allows the cantilever to trace out the border of this pattern.The border was then in turn traced out onto the surface of Lexanpolycarbonate using an Olympus AC240 cantilever and a loading point ofapproximately 200 nN. After lithography, imaging was performed inAC/repulsive more at an amplitude of 100 nm. The resulting image isshown in FIG. 9B. Obviously, the AFM tip modified the surface,reproducing the border of the original image FIG. 9A.

This controller has a built in rotary encoder and programmablepushbutton switch. This allows control parameters to be manipulatedusing a “knob” rather than a standard computer keyboard or mouse input.

The described embodiments of the invention are only considered to bepreferred and illustrative of the inventive concept. The scope of theinvention is not to be restricted to such embodiments. Various andnumerous other arrangements may be devised by one skilled in the artwithout departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method, comprising: receiving a signal from acantilever of an atomic force microscope; in a first cycle of operation,analyzing an amplitude of said signal using a first processing mode forsaid analyzing; and in a second cycle of operation, after said firstcycle of operation and carried out without changing hardware, analyzingthe amplitude of said signal using a second processing mode for saidanalyzing, said second processing mode being different than said firstprocessing mode.
 2. A method as in claim 1, wherein said firstprocessing mode is a digital lock-in mode, and said second processingmode is a peak detector mode.
 3. The method as in claim 2, wherein saidfirst processing and said second processing are carried out byreprogramming programmable logic.
 4. The method as in claim 2, whereinsaid first processing and said second processing are carried out byreprogramming a field programmable gate array.